Alexander the great empire
Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner — nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge.
During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but in early BC he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later BC where he was regarded as a liberator. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria , which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Babylonian astronomical diaries say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa , one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates in the modern Zagros Mountains which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.
On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate "The Furthest" in modern Tajikistan.
In BC, Spitamenes , who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy , one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai.
After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace. During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis , either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.
This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it. During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for Iranians and to a major degree, Persian noblemen.
A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas , was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion , who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana , was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black , during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan , in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and especially of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.
Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed. This one was instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus , was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander , Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater , an experienced military and political leader, and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum , and then of the island of Thasos between and BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.
Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in Cilicia in Tarsus , after the Battle of Issus in BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire. The gold series had the head of Athena on the obverse and a winged Nike Victory on the reverse.
Heracles and Zeus were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, Dium. Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire.
The great alexander biography of donald
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana Raoxshna in Old Iranian to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan , to come to him and submit to his authority.
Omphis Indian name Ambhi , the ruler of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes Jhelum , complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas , refused to submit. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1, talents in gold".
Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund , [ ] supplied their troops with provisions, and he received Alexander and his whole army in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5, men and took part in the Battle of the Hydaspes. After that victory, he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus , to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; Taxiles contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes and was entrusted by Alexander with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus.
A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip , son of Machatas, and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself BC , as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus , BC. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora, and Aornos.
The fort of Massaga was reduced after days of bloody fighting in which Alexander was seriously wounded in the ankle. According to Curtius , "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos.
Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus's territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis Beas. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River Beas , refusing to march farther east.
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.
For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland".
Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi in modern-day Multan and other Indian tribes; while besieging the Mallian citadel, Alexander suffered a near-fatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung. Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania modern southern Iran with general Craterus , and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus , while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.
Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, [ ] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned.
Alexander the great biography
Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, [ ] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. Several natural causes diseases have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.
The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health. Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros , one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.
Pompey , Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose of Alexander's mummified body off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use.
Alexander the Great: Biography, King of Macedonia, Royalty: Alexander the Great, a fearless Macedonian king and military genius, conquered vast territories from Greece to Egypt and India, leaving an enduring legacy as one of history’s most remarkable conquerors.
His son and successor, Caracalla , a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy. The so-called " Alexander Sarcophagus ", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum , is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting.
It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus died BC , the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made. Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.
Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male, with himself, Craterus , Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager , rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus.
Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" Diadochi ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into three stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt , Seleucid Syria and East , and Antigonid Macedonia.
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans". According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations.
It included:. The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out. Alexander perhaps earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander; he never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.
He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, [ 94 ] in the manner of a Macedonian king. In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13, infantry with 5, cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40, By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry.
This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. At Issus in BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.
Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style.
Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana , Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail. This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos , paintings by Apelles and gem engravings by Pyrgoteles.
Then Alexander seating himself on the royal throne, which was far too high for his bodily stature. Therefore, since his feet did not reach its lowest step, one of the royal pages placed a table under his feet. Both Curtius and Diodorus report a story that when Darius III 's mother, Sisygambis , first met Alexander and Hephaestion , she assumed that the latter was Alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two.
The Greek biographer Plutarch c. The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed.
Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.
Historians have understood the detail of the pleasant fragrance attributed to Alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient Greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes. The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".
The ancient historian Aelian c. Reconstruction, based on remaining traces of paint of the original polychromy on his sarcophagus , indicates that he was depicted with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair. Both of Alexander's parents encouraged his ambitions. His father Philip was probably Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.
According to Plutarch, Alexander also had a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, [ ] which could influence his decision making. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Alexander married three times: Roxana , daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria , [ ] [ ] [ ] out of love; [ ] and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis , the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III , for political reasons.
Additionally Heracles of Macedon was claimed to be his illegitimate son born of mistress, Barsine. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion , the son of a Macedonian noble. Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus , who are often interpreted as a couple.
Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus , the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles. Peter Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much sexual interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.
According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians", [ ] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history.
His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,, km 2 2,, sq mi , [ ] and was the largest state of its time.
Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next — years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period. The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.
Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos" , of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab , and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded many cities that bore his name , most of them east of the Tigris.
At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis. In , British Museum experts have suggested the possibility that a Greek temple at Girsu in Iraq , was founded by Alexander. According to the researchers, recent discoveries suggest that "this site honours Zeus and two divine sons.
The sons are Heracles and Alexander. Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. Although his successors explicitly rejected such policies, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.
The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.
Alexander hamilton biography
Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language. Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of The Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Greek astronomical treatise and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-reaching. In architecture , a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna , especially with the Pataliputra capital , dated to the 3rd century BC.
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by the values of the Roman Republic. Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.
Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.
He also implemented new formations and tactics, such as the oblique order, which proved to be successful in battle. Moreover, Alexander was a master of psychological warfare. He would often use fear and intimidation to weaken his enemies before engaging them in battle. He also showed mercy towards those who surrendered, earning him the loyalty and respect of many conquered peoples.
In addition to his military conquests, Alexander also established numerous cities and spread Greek culture throughout his empire. He built strategic forts and roads to maintain control over his territories, which further solidified his dominance as a ruler.
In conclusion, Alexander the Great's military campaigns were a testament to his brilliance as a leader and strategist. He managed to conquer vast territories through innovative tactics and a fearless determination to expand his empire. His legacy as a legendary leader and one of the greatest military minds in history continues to inspire and fascinate people to this day.
Alexander the Great was a legendary leader who conquered much of the known world during his lifetime. His early life and rise to power set the stage for his ambitious military campaigns and strategies, which ultimately led to his vast military conquests. However, it was not just his military prowess that made him a prominent figure in history.
Alexander also had a significant cultural impact , spreading Greek culture and language throughout the regions he conquered. His legacy continues to be debated, with some viewing him as a hero and others as a ruthless conqueror. Grace Thompson is a dedicated historian and writer, contributing extensively to the field of world history.
Her work covers a wide range of topics, including ancient civilizations, cultural histories, and significant global events like the World Wars. Known for her meticulous research and clear, engaging writing style, Grace makes complex historical subjects accessible to readers. Her articles are a valuable resource for both students and educators, providing deep insights into how historical events shape the modern world.
Next post Understanding Tsunami in Japan. Grace Thompson Grace Thompson is a dedicated historian and writer, contributing extensively to the field of world history. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death. Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in B. Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him.
Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life. Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane. As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight.
He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated. One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia.
Alexander kimel
So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli. After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River. In early B. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding.
He also took two more wives for himself. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down. To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet. By B. Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia.
In the summer of , the troops of Alexander and Darius once again went head to head in battle at Issus. In November of , Alexander declared himself the king of Persia after capturing Darius and making him a fugitive. After besieging Gaza on his way there, Alexander easily achieved his conquest; Egypt fell without resistance.
In , he created the city of Alexandria, designed as a hub for Greek culture and commerce. Later that year, Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela. Finding himself impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him as king and won his loyalty and forgiveness. Alexander forged eastward to the Ganges but headed back when his armies refused to advance any farther.
On their way back along the Indus, Alexander was wounded by Malli warriors. In , after Alexander had recovered, he and his army headed north along the rugged Persian Gulf, where many fell prey to illness, injury, and death. In February , he reached the city of Susa at last. Desperate to retain his leadership and recruit more soldiers, Alexander tried to connect Persian nobles to Macedonians in an attempt to create a ruling class.
To this end, he commanded that a large number of Macedonians in Susa to marry Persian princesses. After Alexander managed to recruit tens of thousands of Persian soldiers into his army, he dismissed many of his existing Macedonian soldiers. Alexander appeased the Macedonian soldiers by killing 13 Persian military leaders.