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On July 3, French soldiers attacked Fort Necessity, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender. He refused, as it would have been a demotion—the British had ordered that "colonials" could not be ranked any higher than captain—and instead resigned his commission. When he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela, still very ill, the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army.
Two-thirds of the British force became casualties in the ensuing Battle of the Monongahela , and Braddock was killed. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage , Washington rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard , allowing the remnants of the force to retreat. The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August , and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel.
Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with Captain John Dagworthy , who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland. Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission, and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland.
The French had abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault, however, and Washington only saw a friendly fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured. Frustrated, he resigned his commission soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon. Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended miles km of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months.
Though he failed to realize a royal commission, which made him hostile towards the British, [ 31 ] he gained self-confidence, leadership skills, and knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government. Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple had a happy marriage.
As a result, he became one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, which increased his social standing. At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's promise to grant land bounties to those who served with volunteer militias during the French and Indian War. Crawford allotted 23, acres 9, ha to Washington, who told the veterans that their land was unsuitable for farming and agreed to purchase 20, acres 8, ha , leaving some feeling that they had been duped.
As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the Virginia House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in Washington was opposed to the taxes which the British Parliament imposed on the Colonies without proper representation.
In response to the Townshend Acts , he introduced a proposal in May which urged Virginians to boycott British goods; the Townshend Acts were mostly repealed in Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in by passing the Coercive Acts , which Washington saw as "an invasion of our rights and privileges".
The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, He was unanimously elected by Congress the next day. Similarly, Washington was impressed by Alexander Hamilton 's intelligence and bravery; he would later promote Hamilton to colonel and appoint him his aide-de-camp. Washington initially banned the enlistment of Black soldiers, both free and enslaved.
The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies: the colonial governor of Virginia issued a proclamation promising freedom to slaves if they joined the British forces. In April , in response to the growing rebellious movement, British troops occupied Boston , led by General Thomas Gage , commander of British forces in America.
When the Charles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but Gates and others were opposed to having untrained militia attempt to assault well-garrisoned fortifications. Instead, Washington agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights above Boston to try to force the British out. Washington entered the city with men, giving them explicit orders not to plunder.
After the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to New York City and retaliate. He arrived there on April 13, , and ordered the construction of fortifications. He also ordered his forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops.
Howe's troop strength totaled 32, regulars and Hessian auxiliaries ; Washington had 23, men, mostly untrained recruits and militia. Overruling his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only around 8, soldiers. Howe sent a message to Washington to negotiate peace, addressing him as "George Washington, Esq.
In November, Howe captured Fort Washington. Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city. Washington crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania , where General John Sullivan joined him with 2, more troops. Washington returned to New Jersey on January 3, , launching an attack on the British regulars at Princeton , with 40 Americans killed or wounded and British killed or captured.
In the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, , Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched unopposed into the American capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot attack against the British at Germantown in October failed. Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold and Benjamin Lincoln.
On October 7, , Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but was isolated from support and forced to surrender. Gates' victory emboldened Washington's critics, who favored Gates as a military leader. Washington and his army of 11, men went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December There they lost between 2, and 3, men as a result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter, reducing the army to below 9, men.
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Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was ultimately dropped. Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions and expressed the urgency of the situation to a congressional delegation. In early , the French entered into a Treaty of Alliance with the Americans. He chose to order a limited strike on the retreating British.
Generals Lee and Lafayette moved with 4, men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first strike on June Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle. The British continued their retreat to New York. Washington would not fight the British in a major engagement again for more than three years". Washington became America's first spymaster by designing an espionage system against the British.
Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, including the invasion of Quebec. He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies, [ ] and 5, veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July.
General Clinton sent Arnold, now a British brigadier general, to Virginia in December with 1, troops to capture Portsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces. Washington sent Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts. Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to the judgment of Rochambeau. Despite this, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer.
The final American offensive began with a shot fired by Washington. When peace negotiations began in April , both the British and French began gradually evacuating their forces. The account was settled, though it was vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters. When the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, , Britain officially recognized American independence.
Washington disbanded his army, giving a farewell address to his soldiers on November 2. In early December , Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern and resigned as commander-in-chief soon after. I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers. Ferling wrote that he was delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life".
Washington reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac Canal projects, begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends. Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and bad weather.
His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in To make his estate profitable again, Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and native shrubs. Before returning to private life in June , Washington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he might be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to the states, maintaining that the Articles of Confederation were no more than "a rope of sand".
He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government. When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts in August , Washington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed.
He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James Madison , Henry Knox , and others. They persuaded him to attend as they felt his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process while also giving legitimacy to the convention. Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9, , and the convention began on May Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the meeting, and he was unanimously elected.
The delegates to the Convention for the first presidential election anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected. Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons. Washington wrote to James Madison : "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.
Washington was an able administrator and judge of talent and character. Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution. Washington opposed political factionalism and remained non-partisan throughout his presidency the only United States president to do so. He was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government.
Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy. Washington initially planned to retire after his first term, weary of office and in poor health.
After dealing with the infighting in his cabinet and with partisan critics, he showed little enthusiasm for a second term, and Martha wanted him not to run. Madison told him that his absence would allow the dangerous political rift in his cabinet and the House to worsen. Jefferson also pleaded with him not to retire, pledging to drop his attacks on Hamilton.
On April 22, , after the French Revolutionary Wars broke out, Washington issued a proclamation declaring American neutrality. He was resolved to pursue "a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent Powers" while warning Americans not to intervene in the conflict. He procured four American ships as privateers to strike at Spanish forces British allies in Florida while organizing militias to strike at other British possessions.
However, his efforts failed to draw the United States into the conflict. During his second term Washington faced two major domestic conflicts. The first was the Whiskey Rebellion — , a Pennsylvania revolt against liquor taxation. Washington mobilized a militia and personally commanded an expedition against the rebels which suppressed the insurgency.
Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain while removing them from western forts, and also to resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution. Washington supported the treaty because it avoided war, [ ] although he was disappointed that its provisions favored Britain. The agreement secured peace with Britain and a decade of prosperous trade; however, Jefferson claimed that it angered France and "invited rather than avoided" war.
He pursued two intertwined interests: military arts and western expansion. At 16 he helped survey Shenandoah lands for Thomas, Lord Fairfax. Commissioned a lieutenant colonel in , he fought the first skirmishes of what grew into the French and Indian War. The next year, as an aide to Gen. Edward Braddock, he escaped injury although four bullets ripped his coat and two horses were shot from under him.
Married to a widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, he devoted himself to a busy and happy life. But like his fellow planters, Washington felt himself exploited by British merchants and hampered by British regulations. As the quarrel with the mother country grew acute, he moderately but firmly voiced his resistance to the restrictions.
On July 3, , at Cambridge, Massachusetts, he took command of his ill-trained troops and embarked upon a war that was to last six grueling years. He realized early that the best strategy was to harass the British. Much has been made of the fact that Washington used false teeth or dentures for most of his adult life. Indeed, Washington's correspondence to friends and family makes frequent references to aching teeth, inflamed gums and various dental woes.
Washington had one tooth pulled when he was just 24 years old, and by the time of his inauguration in he had just one natural tooth left. But his false teeth weren't made of wood, as some legends suggest. Instead, Washington's false teeth were fashioned from human teeth — including teeth from enslaved people and his own pulled teeth — ivory, animal teeth and assorted metals.
Washington's dental problems, according to some historians, probably impacted the shape of his face and may have contributed to his quiet, somber demeanor: During the Constitutional Convention, Washington addressed the gathered dignitaries only once. Though the British Proclamation Act of — prohibiting settlement beyond the Alleghenies — irritated Washington and he opposed the Stamp Act of , he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance against the British until the widespread protest of the Townshend Acts in His letters of this period indicate he was totally opposed to the colonies declaring independence.
However, by , he wasn't opposed to resisting what he believed were fundamental violations by the Crown of the rights of Englishmen. In , Washington introduced a resolution to the House of Burgesses calling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. After the passage of the Coercive Acts in , Washington chaired a meeting in which the Fairfax Resolves were adopted, calling for the convening of the Continental Congress and the use of armed resistance as a last resort.
He was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in March After the battles of Lexington and Concord in April , the political dispute between Great Britain and her North American colonies escalated into an armed conflict. In May, Washington traveled to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia dressed in a military uniform, indicating that he was prepared for war.
As was his custom, he did not seek out the office of commander, but he faced no serious competition. Washington was the best choice for a number of reasons: he had the prestige, military experience and charisma for the job and he had been advising Congress for months. Another factor was political: The Revolution had started in New England and at the time, they were the only colonies that had directly felt the brunt of British tyranny.
Virginia was the largest British colony and New England needed Southern colonial support. Political considerations and force of personality aside, Washington was not necessarily qualified to wage war on the world's most powerful nation. Washington's training and experience were primarily in frontier warfare involving small numbers of soldiers.
He wasn't trained in the open-field style of battle practiced by the commanding British generals.
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He also had no practical experience maneuvering large formations of infantry, commanding cavalry or artillery, or maintaining the flow of supplies for thousands of men in the field. But he was courageous and determined and smart enough to keep one step ahead of the enemy. Washington and his small army did taste victory early in March by placing artillery above Boston, on Dorchester Heights, forcing the British to withdraw.
Washington then moved his troops into New York City. But in June, a new British commander, Sir William Howe , arrived in the Colonies with the largest expeditionary force Britain had ever deployed to date. In August , the British army launched an attack and quickly took New York City in the largest battle of the war. Washington's army was routed and suffered the surrender of 2, men.
He ordered the remains of his army to retreat into Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. Confident the war would be over in a few months, General Howe wintered his troops at Trenton and Princeton, leaving Washington free to attack at the time and place of his choosing. On Christmas night, , Washington and his men returned across the Delaware River and attacked unsuspecting Hessian mercenaries at Trenton, forcing their surrender.
A few days later, evading a force that had been sent to destroy his army, Washington attacked the British again, this time at Princeton, dealing them a humiliating loss. General Howe's strategy was to capture colonial cities and stop the rebellion at key economic and political centers. He never abandoned the belief that once the Americans were deprived of their major cities, the rebellion would wither.
In the summer of , he mounted an offensive against Philadelphia. Washington moved in his army to defend the city but was defeated at the Battle of Brandywine. Philadelphia fell two weeks later.
Nan peterson biography of george washington carver
In the late summer of , the British army sent a major force, under the command of John Burgoyne, south from Quebec to Saratoga, New York, to split the rebellion between New England and the southern colonies. Without support from Howe, who couldn't reach him in time, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire 6, man army. The victory was a major turning point in the war as it encouraged France to openly ally itself with the American cause for independence.
Through all of this, Washington discovered an important lesson: The political nature of war was just as important as the military one. Washington began to understand that military victories were as important as keeping the resistance alive. Americans began to believe that they could meet their objective of independence without defeating the British army.
Meanwhile, British General Howe clung to the strategy of capturing colonial cities in hopes of smothering the rebellion. Howe didn't realize that capturing cities like Philadelphia and New York would not unseat colonial power. The Congress would just pack up and meet elsewhere.
The 11,man force went into winter quarters and over the next six months suffered thousands of deaths, mostly from disease. But the army emerged from the winter still intact and in relatively good order. Realizing their strategy of capturing colonial cities had failed, the British command replaced General Howe with Sir Henry Clinton. Washington and his men delivered several quick blows to the moving army, attacking the British flank near Monmouth Courthouse.
Though a tactical standoff, the encounter proved Washington's army capable of open field battle. For the remainder of the war, Washington was content to keep the British confined to New York, although he never totally abandoned the idea of retaking the city. The alliance with France had brought a large French army and a navy fleet. Facing the combined French and Colonial armies and the French fleet of 29 warships at his back, Cornwallis held out as long as he could, but on October 19, , he surrendered his forces.
Washington had no way of knowing the Yorktown victory would bring the war to a close.
Nan peterson biography of george washington
A near-mutiny was avoided when Washington convinced Congress to grant a five-year bonus for soldiers in March By November of that year, the British had evacuated New York City and other cities and the war was essentially over. My education on Washington was made easier, of course, by the fact that many of the biographies I read were outstanding.
The experience set the standard by which all other presidential biographies will have to be judged. Though these 1, pages required a significant time commitment, the reward was an understanding of Washington so deep and thorough that no other biography exceeded the experience. But overall, the series was fantastic. Full reviews here , here , here and here.
Here, in just over pages, Flexner captures the essence of what made Washington a unique historical figure. This biography includes a large number of charts, illustrations, maps and pictures which were not present in his earlier, larger work. Despite my fondness for this biography, his four-volume series was so strong that this abbreviation falls a bit short by comparison.
But it is still one of the best single-volume biographies of Washington I read. Full review here. It is excellent in every respect and is by far the best single-volume Washington biography I read. If this book is not already in your library, get it. This biography is probably the best choice for someone with extremely limited time or shelf space.
It was the shortest of the biographies I read at pages , but far from the least worthy. And in terms of impact-per-page, this may have been the best of the group. While they each have merit, they fell far short of the rest of the group. In a world overflowing with an abundance of great biographies of George Washington, I would leave these two on the shelf.
Neither is adequate for a reader hoping to get a comprehensive, and interesting, view of Washington from a single source. Although much of the analysis seems reasonable, the tone of the book is needlessly one-sided. While it provides some unique insight into that period of his life, it proves quite dry and the narrow focus requires the author to leave aside much which could otherwise be of interest.
Condensing this 3, page behemoth was no small task and Harwell admitted early in this page abridgment to many of the required compromises. The former will find this an often laborious, dense and colorless reading experience devoid of context, foreshadowing and conclusory remarks. The latter will find it is lacking footnotes, bibliography and a large number of maps and illustrations.
So although the abridgment was almost as enormous a feat of literary genius as was writing the original series, it is far from ideal for most of its likely audience. Rick Bretz said:. February 5, at am. George Washington was a fascinating person leading a group of extraordinary people, the Founding Fathers. Your goal of reading the best biographies is an ambitious journey but well worthwhile.
John Adams by David McCullough is great read also. Steve said:. Just getting started on John Adams by McCullough. September 29, at am. I finished it last year the single volume, not the four volume set and thought it was indispensable reading for details of the Revolution. After I finish my current journey through the presidents I plan on circling back and making another pass with the best of the books I missed first time through.
Marcus said:. October 13, at pm. If I can find the entire series — affordably — I will probably read the entire series. December 13, at am. Maybe not about the entire life of the President, but instead focusing on a specific aspect or what was going on at that time. It is about the fight against the Barbary Pirates — Jefferson himself is given a small role in the book but the glimpse into his policies and what was happening at the time was fascinating.
Great book. Melinda said:.
Biography of george washington book
January 18, at pm. Jesse said:. February 26, at pm. Why not read the Washington Irving book? Because of its age, I was reluctant to include this rarely-read work on my short list. March 13, at pm. Thanks for the reviews! July 12, at pm. Rick Rampulla said:. September 22, at am. That is an excellent idea! Narrative history is virtually absent from Library of America.
July 18, at pm. Apparently brings Washington to life in a colorful way and brings an interesting perspective to his post-Revolutionary life. July 19, at pm. February 27, at pm. Grant said:. June 6, at am. June 7, at am. Rafael Costas said:. October 17, at pm.